Product Code Database
Deaf education is the education of students with any degree of hearing loss. This may involve, but does not always, individually-planned, systematically-monitored teaching methods, adaptive materials, accessible settings, and other interventions designed to help students achieve a higher level of self-sufficiency and success in the school and community than they would achieve with a typical classroom education. There are different language modalities used in educational setting where students get varied communication methods. A number of countries focus on training teachers to teach deaf students with a variety of approaches and have organizations to support and advocate for deaf students.
In cases of congenital hearing loss (hearing loss from birth), parents can start to notice differences in their children's hearing as soon as newborn to three months old. If a child doesn't respond to sudden loud sounds, this could be an indication. As the baby begins to age to around four to eight months, they should turn their head towards where the sound is coming from. Around a year to 16 months, if they don't pronounce words correctly, or don't speak at all, this could also be an indication. All those are indications of congenital hearing loss, which means the child was born this way.
A child can also acquire hearing loss at a young age due to a middle ear infection, a serious head injury, exposure to loud noises over a long period, and many other causes. If this occurs, the same symptoms will occur as they do with congenital hearing loss. If this happens when a child is older, around toddler or preschool age, there are more signs to look for. Signs could include a child not replying when their name is called. The child may pronounce words differently than the rest of their peers. If the child turns up the TV incredibly high or sits very close, this could also be an indication. One of the biggest indications that a child may have hearing loss is they intensely focus on the person's lips and facial expressions to understand what they are saying when they are having a conversation with someone. If a child has these signs, getting a screening for hearing loss would be the next step.
As recently as the 1990s, many parents in the United States were unaware that their child was deaf until on average 2.5 to 3 years old, according to the U.S. National Institute of Health. Worse yet, many other children were not identified as having any hearing impairment until they reached five or six years of age. In 1993, the National Institutes of Health's Consensus Development Conference on Early Identification of Hearing Loss concluded previous risk-based assessment was not sufficient and that all infants should receive hearing screenings, ideally prior to hospital discharge postpartum. At the time of this decision, only 11 hospitals nationally were performing screening on 90 percent of babies born, according to the National Center for Hearing Assessment and Management. Since then, universal hearing screening has greatly improved early identification.
Language deprivation is defined as lack of access to language during a child's critical period for language exposure, which begins to taper off precisely around the age of five. Unlike any other population, the vast majority of Deaf and hard of hearing children are at risk of having this type of limited exposure to language in early childhood. Research on language deprivation and early childhood interventions to prevent language deprivation are burgeoning. Language Equality & Acquisition for Deaf Kids (LEAD-K), for example, is a national campaign that aims to ensure that D/HH children in the United States gain the early language foundation necessary to be kindergarten-ready.
For D/HH adolescents and adults who have passed the critical period for language acquisition and have experienced language deprivation, the consequences are far-reaching. Delayed age of acquisition of a first language has deleterious effects on all levels of language processing, ranging from syntactic, to lexical, to phonological difficulties, not to mention cognitive delays, mental health difficulties, lower quality of life, higher trauma, and limited health literacy. Additionally, delayed exposure to a fully accessible language (i.e. a natural sign language) in early life not only affects the ability to acquire such a sign language later in life, but "leads to incomplete acquisition of all subsequently learned languages". The impact of language deprivation is severe and must be considered in efforts toward early identification of deaf and hard of hearing children as well as intervention.
Proponents of this philosophy emphasize the need for deaf and hard-of-hearing students to have exposure to a fully accessible language (i.e. a sign language) from a young age for optimal cognitive development. Supporters believe that, due to the widely recognized variability in cochlear implant and hearing aid outcomes, sign language access is critical to ensure that deaf and hard-of-hearing children do not experience language deprivation, which has significant effects on mental health, socioemotional development, language fluency, and educational outcomes, among other factors.
Critics of this philosophy believe that without a strong emphasis on spoken communication, this philosophy may lead to students being unable to integrate into the typically-hearing world.
Whereas the Bilingual-Bicultural philosophy emphasizes the separation of spoken and signed languages, the Total Communication philosophy allows simultaneous use of signed and spoken languages. It also allows the use of artificial signed systems, which are based on the grammar and syntax of spoken language and stand in opposition to formal sign languages, which have their own distinct grammar and syntactic rules.
Proponents of this philosophy believe that flexibility in communication strategies is critical for the success of deaf and hard of hearing children and that no one approach is effective for the majority of these children. Total Communication emphasizes taking the strengths and needs of individual children into account and believes that mixed communication strategies that cater to these strengths lead to optimal outcomes.
Critics of this philosophy argue that using multiple modalities (sign language and/or sign systems alongside spoken language, also known as simultaneous communication) is problematic, because it reduces the linguistic quality of both languages and therefore does not constitute full language exposure for deaf and hard-of-hearing children.
Signing schools often adopt a Bilingual-Bicultural philosophy in which mastery of both a signed and a written language are equally prioritized, with supports provided for students who also wish to gain fluency in spoken language. Some signing schools utilize a Total Communication philosophy.
Examples of Bilingual-Bicultural K-12 programs in the United States include Texas School for the Deaf, California School for the Deaf, Fremont and The Learning Center for the Deaf. Bilingual-bicultural colleges and universities include Gallaudet University and National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID).
Oral schools adhere to an auditory/verbal philosophy (either oralism or listening and spoken language) in which mastery of spoken language is prioritized.
Examples of auditory/verbal K-12 programs in the United States include Central Institute for the Deaf, Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech, Northern Voices, and Memphis Oral School for the Deaf.
Some deaf children exclusively attend a mainstream program; others join select mainstream classes for part of their day. Students may receive accommodations, such as itinerant teachers, interpreters, assistive technology, note-takers and aides.
Khalifa has expressed concerns about the standardization of curriculum in certain residential schools for the Deaf. Deaf students often report learning more difficult material in general education settings than in residential schools for the Deaf, and they report better post-secondary educational and vocational opportunities.
There is an increasing demand for Deaf students to be included in general education settings. However, in general education settings, Deaf students tend to perform worse than their hearing peers academically due to miscommunications that occur through third-person sign language interpreting. In addition to increasing miscommunication, third-person sign language interpreting in general education settings is economically inefficient and in some cases, is not possible due to a lack of school resources. Deaf schools eliminate the need for third-person interpreting, and thus, reduce the probability of miscommunication between teachers and Deaf students. Deaf schools also provide the opportunity for Deaf students to learn sign language, which can improve their scholastic and social-emotional capability. Identification with the Deaf community and the ability to communicate with both hearing peers and Deaf peers positively predict self-esteem outcomes in Deaf students.
The grandson of Sir John Popham, Alexander, was born in 1650. He was either deaf at birth, or became so before acquiring speech. Two eminent men came to his home at Littlecote House to teach him to talk: John Wallis, mathematician and cryptographer, and William Holder, music theorist.
The first British school for teaching the deaf to speak and read was Thomas Braidwood's Academy for the Deaf and Dumb in Edinburgh, established during the 1760s, the time of the Scottish Enlightenment. The school moved to London in 1783. Braidwood used an early form of sign language: the combined system, forerunner of British Sign Language. Under the management of Braidwood's nephew the school expanded, encouraging the establishment of an Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb in Edgbaston in 1814 and others in Liverpool, Doncaster. Edinburgh, Exeter, and Manchester (now the Seashell Trust).
Britain's first free school for deaf pupils, the London Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, was set up in 1792 by three men: Henry Thornton, MP, abolitionist, and reformer; Rev John Townsend, educator and Independent minister; and Henry Cox Mason, rector of Bermondsey.
Braidwood's nephew Joseph Watson offered himself as tutor, and eventually became headmaster; he wrote On the Education of the Deaf and Dumb (1809). The institute's name and location changed more than once, and for most of the nineteenth century it occupied a purpose-built boarding school on the Old Kent Road, Southwark in Inner London; it moved to the seaside at Margate, where it was known as the Royal School for Deaf Children Margate, finally closing in 2015.
The Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act 1893 set the compulsory age for the admission of deaf children in boarding schools at seven years, and the leaving age at sixteen. This was at odds with the compulsory age of admission for both hearing and blind children at five years old, and a school leaving age of fourteen for hearing children. In 1937, a new law lowered the age of admission of children attending schools for the deaf from seven years to five years.
In the mid-1960s the Inner London Education Authority set up two primary schools for deaf children, Frank Barnes School in North London and Grove House School in South London. They also opened Oak Lodge Secondary School in Wandsworth, South London, which was one of a few state boarding schools.
British Sign Language was recognised in 2003.
It is frequent that deaf students in hearing schools are taught sign language one-on-one, meaning they lack social interaction with their peers. Being taken out of classes and recess for these lessons decreases their time with other students. There are also fewer interpreters available than needed, meaning students immersed in hearing schools sometimes have to rely on their own knowledge to make it through a class.
The most common language taught by teachers of the deaf in signing schools is Australasian Signed English. Most deaf children will be taught standardized English in hearing schools. Schools that teach Auslan, or Australian Sign Language, are usually only specialized schools for the deaf, which are rare. Auslan can also be difficult to learn and reproduce with others since it is common that teachers of Auslan will pass on an outdated version of the language. This includes signs that may no longer be used or signs that have been redeveloped.
A group known as Deaf Australia is attempting to address the complex issues of deaf education and representation in their country. They believe in the idea that deaf children need to be taught both Auslan and English, and not just have access to one or the other. Their statistics state that deaf students are usually "two standard deviations outside of the average" in terms of educational performance, and their goal as an organization is to change this.
The Gonski report, led by David Gonski and Julia Gillard, made the argument that the Australian government did not have a stable, concise approach to funding for schools. This report was the basis for the National Plan for School Improvement of 2014 whose mission was to make sure all Australian students, regardless of background or disability, would be receiving a "world-class education". The National Plan was the beginning of more opportunities for deaf students to have a specialized, enriching education similar to that of hearing students.
From the National Plan and statistics about Australian disability education came the National Disability Strategy of 2012. The strategy highlights a ten-year plan developed by the National People with Disabilities and Carer Council to "improve life for Australians with disability". The plan was to take place from 2011 to 2020 with three main phases: 1) gathering statistics about disability education and life in Australia, 2) prioritizing certain actions based on gathered statistics and implement them into Australian government/daily life and 3) check on progress of implemented actions and make sure the plan is on track. The National Disability Strategy is considered in Australia to be a "historic milestone" due to it being the first time all aspects of Australian government and society has come together to focus on improving the lives of disabled citizens.
The government and school system suggests parents of children with hearing loss use the oral method at home, to stimulate and create excitement in learning. By 1975 there were 73 schools for the hearing impaired in West Germany, most being state residential schools, with a few private religious schools. In classrooms, gestures and signing were not allowed, children had to closely watch their teachers' lips as vocabulary and background information is explained. Children could easily move throughout programs that best suited their learning needs; their placement typically based on their hearing ability. Integrated programs had been unsuccessful except in classes like sports, workshop, and art, but contact between the deaf and mainstream schools is encouraged. Outside of the classroom students are free to communicate however they chose, which tends to be a manual communication.
In recent years, deaf schools have begun to accept a bilingual approach to education. 90% of deaf institutions still have an oralist approach, but about 60% of those schools use a combined manual method of teaching.
The Wesley School for the Deaf is the oldest school for the Deaf in Nigeria, being founded in 1958. The Wesley School for the Deaf is still teaching the Deaf in Surulere, Lagos, Nigeria, with the help of the Wesley Methodist mission and the state government.
The expansion of deaf education in Nigeria is largely credited to Andrew Foster, the first black graduate of Gallaudet University. Foster had previously founded a school for the deaf in Ghana. While identifying deaf individuals he offered to send them to his school in Ghana. Those selected would complete a certification course to get them ready to become an administrator, teacher, or office workers for the schools which Foster established in Nigeria.
Foster established three schools in Nigeria: Kaduna in northern Nigeria, Enugu in eastern Nigeria, and lastly Ibadan in western Nigeria. The schools he established have since closed down or merged into other schools, but his legacy is still remembered.
Public special education began to change in 1975 though. The National Policy on Education recognized Special Education and was passed in 1977 and revised in 1981 and 2015. The policy has a section devoted to special need education. The Blueprint on Education of the Handicapped in Nigeria started in 1989, which established several schools, like School for the Deaf Akure, catering especially to those with special education needs. The 2006 national census puts the figure of persons with disability in Nigeria at 3,253,169, with about 39 per cent of school age.
Nigeria uses a 6–3–3–4 educational system, standing for six years of primary education, three years in junior primary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four years of higher education. In theory the 6–3–3–4 system should allow for the deaf and special needs to receive an education; however, in practice service for the deaf and special needs are well behind other countries.
There are also disputes over which form of schooling is best for children who are deaf. Some say that mainstream schooling with other non-deaf students is the best because it prepares students for the real world where there is a mix of both hearing and deaf people. While others say that sending their child to a deaf school is the better option because it surrounds their child with other students who are like them. Neither is better than the other and it is important to keep in mind that what is best for one child probably will not be the same for another.
The issues surrounding the education of deaf and hard of hearing students are unique and complex. Students must have access to full communication in the educational setting so they can learn and thrive. Federal and state education laws also play a role in ensuring that deaf and hard-of-hearing students receive a quality education. National Association for the Deaf: K-12 Education
|
|
